| eJournal
Articles Free Online Journal Articles and Reviews |
|
|
|
|
|
Driving Home: Parental Commuting and Symptoms of Teen Depression (Part 1)by Gregory E. Hamlin, PhD Number GH-01 of free online journal articles
CALIFORNIA SCHOOL OF PROFESSIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Los Angeles
Driving Home: Parental Commuting and Depressive Symptoms in Young Adolescents
A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology
by Gregory E. Hamlin 1999
Copyright by Gregory E. Hamlin 1999 CALIFORNIA SCHOOL OF PROFESSIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Los Angeles Campus
The dissertation of Gregory E. Hamlin, directed and approved by the candidate’s Committee, has been accepted by the Faculty of the California School of Professional Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Dissertation Committee:
Karen M. Finello, Ph.D., Chairperson Terece Bell, Ph.D. John Bakaly, Ph.D.
1999 Table of ContentsDEDICATION................................................................................................................. TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................... LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................... LIST OF APPENDICES................................................................................................ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............................................................................................. VITA............................................................................................................................... ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION..................................................................... CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Early Adolescent Depression and Parental Commuting Behavior...................................... Statement of the Problem.................................................................................................... CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.................................................................................................................... Overview............................................................................................................................. Commuting Stress and the Family....................................................................................... Commuting Behavior in Southern California................................................................... Commuting Behavior in Los Angeles County and Ventura County............................... The Nature and Effects of Commuting Stress............................................................... Stress Versus Strain.................................................................................................... Salient Factors in the Stress-Strain Relationship for the Commuter........................... Behavioral, Emotional and Attitudinal Effects.......................................................... The Koslowsky Model of Commuting Stress................................................................ Early Adolescent Depression............................................................................................. Depression as a Symptom, Syndrome or Disorder: Diagnostic and Classification Issues.............................................................................. Prevalence Rates of Depression..................................................................................... Aspects of Early Adolescent Depression Relevant to Commuting................................ Attachment, Loss, and Mourning............................................................................... Inadequate Coping and Cognition.............................................................................. Emotional Regulation and Vulnerability to Depression............................................. Stress, Anxiety, and Depression................................................................................. Life Events and Difficulties....................................................................................... Salient Features of Early Adolescent Development.......................................................... Cognitive Development and the Emotional Experience of the Early Adolescent......... Piaget’s View of Pre-adolescence and Adolescence.................................................. Flavell’s Amendments to the Developmental Trends Noted by Piaget...................... Friendship and Cognitive Development..................................................................... Social Development and the Emotional Experience of the Early Adolescent............... Attachments................................................................................................................ Friendships with Peers: Needs and Developmental Tasks......................................... Family Life Cycle Changes and Developmental Vulnerability.................................. Family Stressors, Social Development and Early Adolescence: Possible Implications of Long Parent Commutes for Early Adolescent Development............ The Compensating Resources Model of Commuting Stress and Early Adolescent Depression......................................................................................................................... Definitions and Terms....................................................................................................... Definitions Used in Research Planning.......................................................................... Key Definitions Used in Data Analysis......................................................................... Research Hypotheses......................................................................................................... CHAPTER 3 METHODS Sample............................................................................................................................... Description of the Sample.............................................................................................. General Approach to Data Collection............................................................................ Inclusion Criteria............................................................................................................ Original Inclusion Criteria........................................................................................... Revised Inclusion Criteria........................................................................................... Sample Size and Power Analysis................................................................................... Design................................................................................................................................ Setting................................................................................................................................ Variables............................................................................................................................ Variables for Hypothesis Testing................................................................................... Parental Commuting Variables....................................................................................... Parent Demographic Variables....................................................................................... Variables Pertaining to Student Participants.................................................................. Measures............................................................................................................................ Parent Questionnaire...................................................................................................... Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI)......................................................................... Friendship Qualities Scale.............................................................................................. Procedures for Data Collection......................................................................................... Instructions to Participants............................................................................................. Debriefing....................................................................................................................... Incentives for Participation............................................................................................ Human Rights Protection.................................................................................................. CHAPTER 4 RESULTS Data Screening and Important Transformations................................................................ Planned Analyses For Which the Sample Characteristics Precluded Testing................. Main Comparison and Analyses for Hypothesis Testing............................................ Planned Post Hoc Analyses.......................................................................................... Child Friendship, Commute Time and Depression................................................... Commute Stress, Commute Length and Depression................................................ Additional Exploratory Post Hoc Analyses.................................................................... Variables Used in Exploratory Analyses...................................................................... The Relationship Between Parental Commuting and Child Depressive Symptoms.... The Relationship Between Child Gender and Child Depressive Symptoms............... The Relationship Between Compensating Resources and Depressive Symptoms....... A Logistic Regression Model for Predicting the Presence of Depressive Symptoms.. CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION Overview of Findings...................................................................................................... The Implications of Revised Inclusion Criteria for Hypothesis Testing..................... Parental Commuting and Young Adolescent Depression............................................ Compensating Resources, Gender and Young Adolescent Depression....................... A Preliminary Model for Predicting Depressive Symptoms........................................ Descriptive Information Regarding the Sample.............................................................. Findings Interpreted in Light of Methodological Considerations and the Literature..... The Stress and Strain of Commuting and the Home Environment.............................. Parental Commute Time and Young Adolescent Depression...................................... Compensating Resources, Gender and Young Adolescent Depression....................... The Prediction Model and Adolescent Development.................................................. An Evaluation of the Compensating Resources Model................................................... Assumptions and Limitations.......................................................................................... Directions for Future Research........................................................................................ REFERENCES............................................................................................................... APPENDICES................................................................................................................
Table
LIST OF FIGURESFigure
List of Appendices
Appendix A Letter to School District Officials: Invitation and Incentives to Participate in a Research Project Appendix B Invitation/Parent Consent Form................................................................................................................................. Appendix C Parent Questionnaire Appendix D Detailed Procedure for Giving Instructions to Student Participants........................................................................ 191 Appendix E Debriefing of Student Participants................................................................................................................................. 193 Appendix F Friendship Qualities Scale 195 Appendix G Children’s Depression Inventory................................................................................................................................. 198
acknowledgmentsMany people contributed to the completion of this study and I wish to acknowledge their various contributions. The steady, loving encouragement of my wife Christine allowed this research project to survive the innumerable logistical and motivational challenges inherent in doctoral work. My three children, Nathan, Rochelle, and Alyson, gave me perspective as each of them passed through the young adolescent years while I commuted to work and conducted this research. I feel special gratitude to my daughter Rochelle for her careful persistence in entering the lion’s share of the collected data into the computer – all during a record Southern California heat wave in a house with a broken air conditioner. My family taught me the joy of ‘having a life’ while in graduate school and kept me sane in its most challenging moments. I am grateful for the administrators, principals, teachers, and office staff of the districts represented by the following schools: Placerita Junior High School, La Mesa Junior High School, Challenger Middle School, Jefferson Middle School, Castaic Middle School, Mountain View Elementary School, Rosedell Elementary School, and Emblem Elementary School. Most importantly, I appreciate the participation of the students and their parents who were the “stars” of this study. Lise Meyers, my assistant during the data collection phase, helped with numerous organizational details including preparation of test materials, phone calls, correspondence, crowd control at the schools, and even ordering pizza for the student participants. I would like to thank my committee members John Bakaly, Ph.D., Terece Bell, Ph.D., and Karen M. Finello, Ph.D. Dr. Bakely gave wise advice and encouragement concerning various aspects of keeping the big picture in mind. Dr. Bell gave timely encouragement and methodological advice at critical junctures in the planning and writing of this dissertation. As the chairperson of the committee, Dr. Finello’s encouragement and insight helped get this project off the ground and saw it to completion. Her patience and research expertise allowed the entire research project to take shape. Her vision for applied research that gives something back to the community has made a lasting impression on me and guided me during the data collection process. Her close attention to the written expression of each successive draft resulted in countless useful tips and helpful comments. A special thanks to Joan Murray, Ph.D. is in order. Dr. Murray’s gracious willingness to be available to discuss numerous statistical issues not only contributed greatly to this study but also fueled my interest in statistical analysis. Finally, I thank God for the numerous friends and relatives who have encouraged me along the way. Their kinds words and tangible support cannot be measured. VITA
abstract of the dissertation
Driving Home: Parental Commuting and Depressive Symptoms in Young Adolescents
by Gregory E. Hamlin Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology California School of Professional Psychology 1999 Karen M. Finello, Ph.D., Chairperson
The empirical literature concerned with commuting stress thus far has neglected to focus on the emotional adjustment of the children of commuting parents who work at full-time jobs. The purpose of this correlational, exploratory study was to examine the relationship between parental commute variables and the symptoms of depression endorsed by their young adolescent children. Specifically, this study examined 146 families as to how the roundtrip commute time of parents related to the scores of young adolescents who completed the Children’s Depression Inventory. Related commuting variables were also examined as were adolescent scores on the Friendship Quality Scale. Participants were recruited from public Middle Schools, Junior High Schools, and Elementary Schools located in suburban areas of greater Los Angeles. One parent per family completed a paper and pencil questionnaire assessing the commuting characteristics of each parent in the home as well as demographic characteristics. Their children (one 6th, 7th, or 8th grade student from each family) completed the Children’s Depression Inventory and the Friendship Quality Scale. It was hypothesized that longer commute times would be associated with a greater number and severity of symptoms of depression endorsed by the adolescents sampled. Findings revealed that commute time to and from parents’ present employment was not associated with Children’s Depression Inventory scores. However, there was an inverse relationship between the commute time to and from the previous jobs of parent respondents’ and the number and severity of symptoms endorsed by their children. By contrast, the present commute time of the spouses of parent respondents was associated with higher scores on the Children’s Depression Inventory. The relationship between Children’s Depression Inventory scores and other variables was examined under the rubric of “compensating resources:” friendship quality, family income, participation in organized sports, and residence in a two-parent household. Of these, only family income was found to be associated with lower depression scores. A post hoc logistic regression analysis resulted in a prediction model which correctly classified 85% of the students as having depressive symptoms which were “present” or “negligible” by using four variables: (1) minutes of previous job commute; (2) Friendship Quality Scale score; (3) child gender; and (4) spouse total commute time. The results of the study suggest the importance of examining child correlates in relationship to parental commuting behavior.
Chapter 1introducTIONEarly Adolescent Depression and Parental Commuting BehaviorThis exploratory study examines the relationship between the time it takes for parents to drive to and from work and how their young adolescent offspring perceive the world. Specifically, the perceptions of 6th, 7th, and 8th grade students are examined for an overall theme or ‘hue’ of negative mood. The level of depressed affect is quantified by the score of a standard child depression measure which indicated the adolescent’s overall perception of his or her world in terms of symptoms of depression. The original intent of this investigation was to explore the relationship between parent commute time and the level of depression displayed in their young adolescent’s perceptions of the world. Because the population sample showed a limited range of depression levels, the focus of analysis was on the depressive symptoms of the adolescents in relation to the commute time of their parents. Additionally, the quality of adolescent friendships was explored for relevance to depressive symptoms. The transition from late childhood to early adolescence is known to involve not only an increase in the number of stressors for the youngster, but also an increase in the rate at which new environmental, social, and physiological pressures confront the child (Brooks-Gunn, Peterson, & Compas, 1995; Carter & McGoldrick, 1988; McCauley, Kendall, & Pavlidis, 1995). Epidemiological studies of depressive disorder as a clinical syndrome indicate prevalence estimates vary between 1.8% and 8.9% (Angold & Costello, 1995; Brooks-Gunn et al., 1995). In contrast to clinical depression, the depressed affect as a mood state occurs in about one-third of all youth at any given point in time (Brooks-Gunn et al., 1995). Depressed affect refers to periods of sadness, unhappiness, or dysphoric mood that most people experience at some time during their lives, whereas clinical depression includes the various depressive disorders which are distinguished by their impairment of functioning and their longer duration. There is wide recognition among mental health professionals that family and social support can play an important role in coping with depression as well as its prevention and treatment. However, the young adolescent is in a transition stage in which the sources of social support are ambiguous, since he or she is beginning to look more outside the family to friends and other adults (Carter & McGoldrick, 1988). At the same time, working parents of young adolescents are often in the phase of their careers in which there are intense job demands. One of these demands involves commuting to and from work. If the commute is long, it not only displaces time that could otherwise be spent with children, but it represents a depleting experience for the parent. These effects of commuting behavior are noteworthy because commuting long distances to work is so common nationally and especially in Southern California (Commuter Transportation Services, 1994; JCPS, 1985). In light of these trends, it is possible that the stress and strain of long parental commutes may have an adverse affect on young adolescents in the home who depend on their parents for encouragement and support during a crucial transition of their development. Novaco (1991) examined home environmental consequences of the strain of commuting with respect to the personal affect of the commuters themselves. He found that negative mood at home for the commuting workers was significantly related to the average time required to drive to work and to the average driving time of their return trip home. There did not appear to be significant effects for family conflict. The findings are particularly significant because the subjects were residing and working within Southern California.
Statement of the ProblemIf late childhood and early adolescence is characterized by greater stress, it is reasonable to ask if the time that adults are away from their children on the road has any relationship at all to the mood of the child or adolescent. This is especially important in Southern California where there is a trend toward longer and more stressful commutes. In particular, there has been a need to consider whether or not the length of commutes by parents of adolescents is significantly correlated with either the incidence or severity of depression among adolescents. Among 6th, 7th, and 8th grade children of parents with longer commutes to work, is there a significantly higher incidence of mild, moderate, or severe depression when compared with families where working parents have relatively short commutes? Do the young adolescents of parents with long commutes tend to have, on average, an outlook on their life that is measurably more depressed than young adolescents of parents with short commutes? In other words, if negative perception of the world is quantified as a score of depression level on a standard child depression measure, do young adolescents in the homes of parents with long commutes have a higher group average depression level than young adolescents whose parents have short commutes? In contrast to Novaco (1991) who examined the home consequences of commuting for the commuters themselves, the present study endeavors to raise the issue of the home consequences of commuting from the perspective of the children and young adolescents. Is it possible that parents who travel more than an hour per day could perceive their own commuting experience in a relatively favorable light, while producing a negative effect for their offspring? While it is beyond the scope of this study to measure commuting as a discrete cause of depression among children and adolescents, the relationship between the commuting behavior of adults and the negative mood of their 6th, 7th, and 8th grade children will be explored by comparing parental commute length with an objective measure of child depression level. The implications of this problem touch on some important issues. First, studies to date indicate that parents themselves are adversely affected by long commutes, although the effect on young adolescents is unknown. How do sons and daughters of commuters differ from children of non-commuters? Might children of commuters be stronger emotionally or more able to utilize other resources in relationships inside or outside the home? Second, are there mediating variables which affect the way in which parental commuting behavior affects children? For example, if one parent has a long commute and another has a short one, is there any negative effect for the child? Or, if parents with long commutes are permitted to “telecommute” from a home office one or two days per week, does this provide a compensating buffer against any negative effects? While these questions are important, they extend beyond the scope of the present study. This investigation will focus only on families where all parents in residence work full time outside the home for more than 35 hours per week. Third, if young adolescents are negatively affected by the long commutes of parents, then what might be the personal and public policy implications? For example, might there be different ways in which parents can manage the demands of their commute so as to reduce the adverse effects for their children? Or, are there feasible steps that companies, schools, or other agencies might take to reduce the strain for the offspring of commuters? Another important question pertains to city planning with respect to roads, freeways, housing and public transportation. Should the effects of parental commuting behavior on children be considered in the course of city planning decisions? Such a question cannot be adequately answered until there are studies identifying and clarifying the effects of parental commuting on children. In fact, there is a need for numerous studies, since the effects of commuting behavior may vary greatly according to the developmental stage of the child. The present exploratory study attempts to focus on one aspect of these larger issues and for only one age group: 6th, 7th, and 8th graders. Specifically, is the average level of depression among young adolescents whose working parents have long commutes significantly higher than for those whose parents have short commutes? Similarly, when adolescent depression levels are quantified and viewed as severity categories (mild or moderate-severe), is the commute length of parents associated with greater incidence of mild and/or moderate-severe depression levels? If not, then are adolescent depressive symptoms related in any way to specific commuting characteristics of their parents?
|
© Copyright 2009, 2010, Gregory E.
Hamlin. All rights reserved. (for articles with no copyright
information)